For the Ponca People, maN zhaN, the land, and Ni', water, are sacred. Following the forced removal of the Ponca Tribe to Oklahoma, the tribe split into two groups: those who stayed in Oklahoma, now referred to as Maste'PoNka, or warm Ponca, and those who returned to the homelands, known as the Usni PoNka, or cold Ponca. At the time of European contact, Ponca hunting grounds extended north to the White River, south to the Niobrara, and from the west bank of the Missouri River to the Black Hills. The Ponca Tribe had several villages in the area, including NaNza, or Ponca Fort, and toNwoN hubtháN, or Fish Smell village, both near present day Verdel, as well as toNwoN uga ska, or White Paint Village, and Backing Water, both on Bazile Creek. Rivers and streams in the area were used for fishing, travel, trade, irrigation of crops, and other natural resources. Crops included Ponca Grey Corn, beans, squash, pumpkins, gourds, and tobacco. Waterways also indicated where ceremonial events took place in the landscape and where villages were located. Water is essential for life, traditional dances, and ceremonies, and Ni' is the lifeblood of the Ponca people and all living things, reflected in the expression A'thayH WoNgithe, meaning all my relatives, which conveys the interconnection of all living things.