Impressment of Americans into British service and the violation of American ships were among the causes of America’s War of 1812 with the British, which lasted until 1815. Beginning in 1813, Virginians suffered from a British naval blockade of the Chesapeake Bay and from British troops plundering the countryside by the Bay and along the James, Rappahannock, and Potomac Rivers. The Virginia militia deflected a British attempt to take Norfolk in 1813 and engaged British forces throughout the war. By the end of the war, more than 2,000 enslaved African Americans in Virginia had gained their freedom aboard British ships. The war also sparked intense opposition. In Congress, the Federalist Party unanimously opposed the declaration of war passed in June 1812. Among the most outspoken critics was Virginia Republican Congressman John Randolph of nearby Roanoke Plantation, who denounced the conflict as one of conquest and ambition, inconsistent with republican principles. Randolph lost his reelection bid in 1813 over his opposition to the war, but he was elected to his former seat in 1815. He later served as U.S. senator, member of Virginia’s Constitutional Convention of 1829-30, and minister to Russia. Randolph died in Philadelphia in 1833 and is buried in Richmond.