The M3 and M3/A1 Stuart tank was developed after Hitler's defeat of France in May 1940 convinced the U.S. Army it needed a light, fast-moving tank for independent armored units rather than infantry support. The first of 5,811 M3 Stuart tanks was built in Berwick, Pennsylvania, in 1941, and before the United States entered the war, many were sent to Great Britain and Commonwealth allies through Lend-Lease, where the British gave the Light Tank M3 the name Stuart after J.E.B. Stuart. Stuart tanks first saw combat with the British in Operation Torch from November 8-11, 1942, during the North Africa Campaign, and about 170 Stuart M3 and M3/A1 tanks were among the more than 700 tanks involved. In North Africa, they suffered higher losses than German and Italian tanks despite similar or sometimes better construction because German tactics were superior, and their short range and supply problems kept them from matching the endurance of British Crusader tanks. Even so, the British valued the Stuart's speed, mechanical reliability, and 37mm gun for infantry support, and after Operation Torch they used Stuarts mainly for scouting, with some altered into lighter turretless vehicles, command vehicles, and armored personnel carriers. In the Pacific Theater, the Stuart's light weight and maneuverability suited jungle warfare, and its 37mm gun could penetrate Japanese tank armor while Japanese guns could not penetrate the Stuart's armor, so Japanese forces had to ambush Stuarts and fire at vulnerable points. The first tank-to-tank battle against the Japanese took place in the Philippines on December 22, 1941, when five Stuarts fought Japanese tanks; the lead tank was knocked out and its crew captured, while the other four were hit but retreated, and Stuarts later skirmished during the retreat down the Bataan Peninsula. Marines also used Stuarts and converted some into armored flamethrowers. In Europe, Stuarts took part in the invasion of Normandy and served through the end of the war, where their light armor and small 37mm guns were inadequate against large German tanks but their speed made them useful for reconnaissance and screening troop movements, and many tank battalions fielded a company of Stuarts alongside Sherman tanks. Stuarts sent to the Soviet Union under Lend-Lease were of little use there because of their small gun, thin armor, tendency to catch fire, requirement for high octane fuel, and narrow treads that bogged down in mud and snow. British crews admired the Stuart's smooth ride and gave it the unofficial nickname Honey, but they also found faults in the riveted turret, difficulty hitting targets while moving, and the cramped turret interior. The M3/A1 variant addressed these problems with a welded turret, a gyro-stabilizer, and a rotating basket for the commander and gunner. Production of the M3/A1 began in June 1942 and ended in April 1943, with 4,621 built.