In autumn 1898, a long tradition of successful negotiation between unions and owners in Marlborough's shoe industry broke down when owners led by William Rice locked out workers on November 10th and insisted that contracts would be negotiated only with individuals rather than unions. The lockout followed a strike by stitchers at the Middlesex Factory, who walked out because of abusive treatment by their supervisor. At first the unions drew widespread sympathy, including beyond New England, but threats of violence and State Police intervention against attacks on replacement workers turned public opinion against them. In January 1899, Samuel Gompers, president of the American Federation of Labor, came to Marlborough and addressed 3,000 workers and sympathizers to strengthen their resolve, but that same evening city merchants voted overwhelmingly to end direct support for union workers. After numerous failed efforts at arbitration, the strikers capitulated. The conflict had severe long-term consequences for Marlborough, including personal and business bankruptcies, losses of revenue, purchasing power, and credit, plummeting property values, home foreclosures, and years of economic damage; of the 3,500 original strikers, only 1,200 returned to their jobs, and the city's population remained stagnant until the post-World War Two economic resurgence.